Competencia y alelopatía en el sistema soja (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) - Maleza (Artemisia annua L.)

La maleza altamisa (Artemisia annua L.) interfiere con el cultivo de soja por competencia y alelopatía, moduladas por estreses bióticos y abióticos (e.g. densidad, herbicida). Los aleloquímicos de altamisa (e.g. artemisinina, aceite esencial) pueden afectar directamente el crecimiento del cultivo o, indirectamente, a través de Bradyrhizobium japonicum (bacteria fijadora de N). Comprender los efectos de las interacciones en el sistema soja-altamisa es agroecológicamente relevante para diseñar prácticas que optimicen la producción y minimicen el uso de insumos. El objetivo de esta tesis fue analizar las interferencias competitivas y alelopáticas entre soja-altamisa y su impacto sobre la nodulación y el rendimiento del cultivo ante cambios en la densidad de plantas y dosis de herbicida. La metodología incluyó ensayos en: (i) parcelas a campo con distintas combinaciones de densidades cultivo-maleza y niveles de alelopatía y de herbicida, (ii) macetas a campo con distintas fuentes de aleloquímicos (biomasa seca y verde de altamisa, artemisinina pura) y suelos (arcilloso y arenoso) y (iii) laboratorio con distintos tipos y niveles de aleloquímicos. (i) Altas densidades de altamisa junto con altos niveles de aleloquímicos en el suelo no redujeron el crecimiento y rendimiento de soja y promovieron la nodulación con o sin aplicación de dosis subletales de herbicida. (ii) El rendimiento fue mayor en presencia de aleloquímicos y sustrato arcilloso. La relación entre el rendimiento y el peso de los nódulos fue positiva y los mayores valores se registraron con biomasa seca de altamisa. (iii) La artemisinina y el aceite esencial provocaron un efecto sinérgico negativo sobre el crecimiento de B. japonicum. El efecto neto de las interacciones competitivas, alelopáticas y de mutualismo generadas entre soja y altamisa dependen no solo del ambiente explorado sino del nivel de organización estudiado. En condiciones de campo (parcelas y macetas), la interacción alelopática fue positiva o neutra, mientras que en laboratorio resultó negativa.

Competencia y alelopatía en el sistema soja (Glycine max (L.) Merr.)- Maleza (Artemisia annua L.)

La maleza altamisa (Artemisia annua L.)interfiere con el cultivo de soja por competencia y alelopatía, moduladas por estreses bióticos y abióticos (e.g. densidad, herbicida). Los aleloquímicos de altamisa (e.g. artemisinina, aceite esencial)pueden afectar directamente el crecimiento del cultivo o, indirectamente, a través de Bradyrhizobium japonicum (bacteria fijadora de N). Comprender los efectos de las interacciones en el sistema soja-altamisa es agroecológicamente relevante para diseñar prácticas que optimicen la producción y minimicen el uso de insumos. El objetivo de esta tesis fue analizar las interferencias competitivas y alelopáticas entre soja-altamisa y su impacto sobre la nodulación y el rendimiento del cultivo ante cambios en la densidad de plantas y dosis de herbicida. La metodología incluyó ensayos en: (i)parcelas a campo con distintas combinaciones de densidades cultivo-maleza y niveles de alelopatía y de herbicida, (ii)macetas a campo con distintas fuentes de aleloquímicos (biomasa seca y verde de altamisa, artemisinina pura)y suelos (arcilloso y arenoso)y (iii)laboratorio con distintos tipos y niveles de aleloquímicos. (i)Altas densidades de altamisa junto con altos niveles de aleloquímicos en el suelo no redujeron el crecimiento y rendimiento de soja y promovieron la nodulación con o sin aplicación de dosis subletales de herbicida. (ii)El rendimiento fue mayor en presencia de aleloquímicos y sustrato arcilloso. La relación entre el rendimiento y el peso de los nódulos fue positiva y los mayores valores se registraron con biomasa seca de altamisa. (iii)La artemisinina y el aceite esencial provocaron un efecto sinérgico negativo sobre el crecimiento de B. japonicum. El efecto neto de las interacciones competitivas, alelopáticas y de mutualismo generadas entre soja y altamisa dependen no solo del ambiente explorado sino del nivel de organización estudiado. En condiciones de campo (parcelas y macetas), la interacción alelopática fue positiva o neutra, mientras que en laboratorio resultó negativa.

13C-2H correlation NMR spectroscopy studies of the in vivo transformations of natural products from Artemisia annua

13C-2H correlation NMR spectroscopy (13C-2H COSY) permits the identification of 13C and 2H nuclei which are connected to one another by a single chemical bond via the sizeable 1JCD coupling constant. The practical development of this technique is described using a 13C-2H COSY pulse sequence which is derived from the classical 13C-1H correlation experiment. An example is given of the application of 13C-2H COSY to the study of the biogenesis of natural products from the anti-malarial plant Artemisia annua, using a doubly-labelled precursor molecule. Although the biogenesis of artemisinin, the anti-malarial principle from this species, has been extensively studied over the past twenty years there is still no consensus as to the true biosynthetic route to this important natural product – indeed, some published experimental results are directly contradictory. One possible reason for this confusion may be the ease with which some of the metabolites from A. annua undergo spontaneous autoxidation, as exemplified by our recent in vitro studies of the spontaneous autoxidation of dihydroartemisinic acid, and the application of 13C-2H COSY to this biosynthetic problem has been important in helping to mitigate against such processes. In this in vivo application of 13C-2H COSY, [15-13C2H3]-dihydroartemisinic acid (the doubly-labelled analogue of the natural product from this species which was obtained through synthesis) was fed to A. annua plants and was shown to be converted into several natural products which have been described previously, including artemisinin. It is proposed that all of these transformations occurred via a tertiary hydroperoxide intermediate, which is derived from dihyroartemisinic acid. This intermediate was observed directly in this feeding experiment by the 13C-2H COSY technique; its observation by more traditional procedures (e.g., chromatographic separation, followed by spectroscopic analysis of the purified product) would have been difficult owing to the instability of the hydroperoxide group (as had been established previously by our in vitro studies of the spontaneous autoxidation of dihydroartemisinic acid). This same hydroperoxide has been reported as the initial product of the spontaneous autoxidation of dihydroartemisinic acid in our previous in vitro studies. Its observation in this feeding experiment by the 13C-2H COSY technique, a procedure which requires the minimum of sample manipulation in order to achieve a reliable identification of metabolites (based on both 13C and 2H chemical shifts at the 15-position), provides the best possible evidence for its status as a genuine biosynthetic intermediate, rather than merely as an artifact of the experimental procedure.

Terpenoids from the seeds of Artemisia annua

Fourteen sesquiterpenes, three monoterpenes and one diterpene natural product have been isolated from the seeds of Artemisia annua. The possible biogenesis of some of these natural products are discussed by reference to recently reported experimental results for the autoxidation of dihydroartemisinic acid and other terpenoids from Artemisia annua. (C) 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

In vivo transformations of dihydroartemisinic acid in Artemisia annua plants

[15-(CH3)-C-13-H-2]-dihydroartemisinic acid (2a) and [15-(CH3)-H-2]-dihydroartemisinic acid (2b) have been fed via the root to intact Artemisia annua plants and their transformations studied in vivo by one-dimensional H-2 NMR spectroscopy and two-dimensional, C-13-H-2 correlation NMR spectroscopy (C-13-(2) H COSY). Labelled dihydroartemisinic acid was transformed into 16 12-carboxy-amorphane and cadinane sesquiterpenes within a few days in the aerial parts of A. annua, although transformations in the root were much slower and more limited. Fifteen of these 16 metabolites have been reported previously as natural products from A. annua. Evidence is presented that the first step in the transformation of dihydroartemisinic acid in vivo is the formation of allylic hydroperoxides by the reaction of molecular oxygen with the Delta(4,5)-double bond in this compound. The origin of all 16 secondary metabolites might then be explained by the known further reactions of such hydroperoxides. The qualitative pattern for the transformations of dihydroartemisinic acid in vivo was essentially unaltered when a comparison was made between plants, which had been kept alive and plants which were allowed to die after feeding of the labelled precursor. This, coupled with the observation that the pattern of transformations of 2 in vivo demonstrated very close parallels with the spontaneous autoxidation chemistry for 2, which we have recently demonstrated in vitro, has lead us to conclude that the main 'metabolic route' for dihydroartemisinic acid in A. annua involves its spontaneous autoxidation and the subsequent spontaneous reactions of allylic hydroperoxides which are derived from 2. There may be no need to invoke the participation of enzymes in any of the later biogenetic steps leading to all 16 of the labelled 11,13-dihydro-amorphane sesquiterpenes which are found in A. annua as natural products. (C) 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.